| Mapudungun Mapudungun |
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|---|---|---|
| Spoken in: | Chile, Argentina | |
| Total speakers: | 240,000 | |
| Language family: | language isolate Mapudungun |
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| Language codes | ||
| ISO 639-1: | none | |
| ISO 639-2: | arn | |
| ISO 639-3: | arn | |
| Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. | ||
Mapudungun (from mapu 'earth, land' and dungun 'speak, speech') is a language isolate spoken in central Chile and west central Argentina by the Mapuche (from mapu and che 'people') people. It is also known as Mapudungu, Mapuche, and Araucanian (Araucano). The latter was the name given to the Mapuche by the Spaniards but nowadays both the Mapuche and their academic circles, avoid this usage. Its speakers possibly number 240,000, with 200,000 in the Central Valley of Chile and 40,000 in several Argentine provinces. Some 150,000 people use the language regularly.[1]
Mapudungun lacks substantive protection or promotion, despite the Chilean government's commitment to improve the situation and provide full access to education in Mapuche areas in southern Chile.
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Mapudungun, also formerly known as the Araucanian language, has been classified by some authorities as being related to the Penutian languages of North America.[citation needed] Others group it among the Andean languages (Greenberg 1987, Key 1978), and yet others postulate an Araucanian-Mayan relationship (Stark 1970, Hamp 1971); Croese (1989, 1991) has advanced the hypothesis that it is related to Arawak. Other authorities regard it as an isolate language. It has had some lexical influence from Quechua (pataka 'hundred', warangka 'thousand') and Spanish.
When the Spanish arrived in Chile, they found four groups of Mapuche, one of which were the Picunche (from pikum 'north' and che 'people') who were conquered quite rapidly. In the Andes Mountains were the Pehuenche. Since the 18th century the southern group or Huilliche (from willi 'south' and che 'people') has lost its specific identity, but the central group in Araucania, the Moluche called Araucanos by the Spanish and now commonly the Mapuche, retains it.
The term Araucano is nowadays avoided by scholars and Mapuche alike.
Two varieties of Mapudungun are still spoken. The most widely spoken is Mapudungun (also Araucano, Mapuche), the language of the Mapuche people. There are an estimated 275,000 active users of the language, 200,000 in Chile and 75,000 in Argentina.
Mapudungun has a number of dialects. In Chile in the region of old Araucania are the Moluche speaking the Moluche or Nguluche dialect. The Pehuenche dialect is spoken by the Pehuenche living in the Andes Mountains. Huillice (also Huilliche, Veliche) was spoken south of the Tolten River. It now has several thousand speakers, most of whom speak Spanish as a first language, south of the Mapuche in Chile's Valdivian Coastal Range, Osorno Province and on Chiloé Island.[2]
Due to the migration of Mapudungun speaking peoples and the subsequent Araucanization in Argentina, the Pehuenche dialect is spoken in Neuquén (from Valdivia to Neuquén); the Moluche or Nguluche dialect is spoken from the Limay River to Lake Nahuel Huapi; the Huilliche or Veliche dialect is spoken in the Lake Nahuel Huapi region as well, and also in Valdivia, Chile; and the Ranquenche dialect is spoken in the Chalileo and General Acha Departments in the La Pampa Province, and in the Río Colorado region.
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This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. |
| bilabial | labiodental | interdental | dento-alveolar | postalveolar | retroflex | palatal | velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plosive | p | t̟ | t | k | ||||
| nasal | m | n̟ | n | ɲ | ŋ | |||
| fricative | f | θ | s | ʃ | ||||
| approximant | w | j | ɰ | |||||
| affricate | ʧ | tʂ | ||||||
| liquid | l̟ | l | ɻ | ʎ |
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The indicative present paradigm for an intransitive verb like konün 'enter' is as follows:
| Number | ||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
| Person | First | konün
(< kon-n) |
koniyu
(< kon-i-i-u) |
koniyiñ
(< kon-i-i-n) |
| Second | konimi
(< kon-i-m-i) |
konimu
(< kon-i-m-u) |
konimün
(< kon-i-m-n) |
|
| Third | koni
(< kon-i-0-0) |
koningu
(< kon-i-ng-u) |
koningün
(< kon-i-ng-n) |
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What some authors have described as an inverse system (similar to the ones described for Algonquian languages) can be seen from the forms of a transitive verb like pen 'see'. The 'intransitive' forms are the following:
| Number | ||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
| Person | First | pen
(< pe-n) |
peyu
(< pe-i-i-u) |
peiñ
(< pe-i-i-n) |
| Second | peymi
(< pe-i-m-i) |
peymu
(< pe-i-m-u) |
peymün
(< pe-i-m-n) |
|
| Third | pey
(< pe-i-0-0) |
peyngu
(< pe-i-ng-u) |
peyngün
(< pe-i-ng-n) |
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The 'transitive' forms are the following (only singular forms are provided here):
| Agent | ||||
| First | Second | Third | ||
| Patient | First | pewün
(< pe-w-n) |
peen
(< pe-e-n) |
peenew
(< pe-e-n-mew) |
| Second | peeyu
(< pe-e-i-u) |
pewimu
(< pe-w-i-m-u) |
peeymew
(< pe-e-i-m-i-mew) |
|
| Third | pefiñ
(< pe-fi-n) |
pefimi
(< pe-fi-i-m-i) |
DIR pefi / INV peeyew / REFL pewi
(< pe-fi-i-0-0 / pe-e-i-0-0-mew / pe-w-i-0-0) |
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When a third peson interacts with a first or second person, the forms are either direct (without -e) or inverse (with -e) and the speaker has no choice. When two third persons interact, two different forms are available: the direct form (pefi) is appropriate when the agent is topical (i.e., the central figure in that particular passage). The inverse form (peenew) is appropriate when the patient is topical. Thus, chi wentru pefi chi domo means 'the man saw the woman' while chi wentru peeyew chi domo means something like 'the man was seen by the woman'; note, however, that it is not a passive construction; the passive would be chi wentru pengey 'the man was seen; someone saw the man'.
The formalization and normalization of Mapudungun was effected by the first Mapudungun grammar published by the Jesuit priest Luis de Valdivia in 1606 (Arte y Gramatica General de la Lengva que Corre en Todo el Reyno de Chile). More important is the Arte de la Lengua General del Reyno de Chile by the Jesuit Andrés Febrés (1765, Lima) composed of a grammar and dictionary. In 1776 three volumes in Latin were published in Westfalia (Chilidúgú sive Res Chilenses) by the German Jesuit Bernardo Havestadt. The work by Febrés was used as a basic preparation from 1810 for missionary priests going into the regions occupied by the Mapuche people. A corrected version was completed in 1846 and a summary, without a dictionary in 1864. A work based on Febrés' book is the Breve Metodo della Lingua Araucana y Dizionario Italo-Araucano e Viceversa by the Italian Octaviano de Niza in 1888. It was destroyed in a fire at the Convento de San Francisco in Valdivia in 1928.
The most comprehensive works to date are the ones by Augusta (1903, 1916). Salas (1992, 2006) is an introduction for non-specialists, featuring an ethnographic introduction and a valuable text collection as well. Zúñiga (2006) includes a complete grammatical description, a bilingual dictionary, some texts and an audio CD with text recordings (educational material, a traditional folktale and six contemporary poems). Smeets (1989) and Zúñiga (2000) are for specialists only. Catrileo (1995) and the dictionaries by Hernández & Ramos are trilingual (Spanish, English and Mapudungun).
In late 2006, Mapuche leaders threatened to sue Microsoft when the latter completed a translation of their Windows operating system into Mapudungun. They claimed that Microsoft needed permission to do so and had not sought it. [4] [5]
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