Calque

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In linguistics, a calque (pronounced /kælk/) or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") or root-for-root translation.

For example, the common English phrase "flea market" is a phrase calque that literally translates the French "marché aux puces".[1]

Going in the other direction, from English to French, provides an example of how a compound word may be calqued by first breaking it down into its component roots. The French "gratte-ciel" is a word-coinage inspired by the model of the English "skyscraper" — "gratter" literally translates as "to scrape", and "ciel" translates as "sky".

Used as a verb, "to calque" means to loan-translate from another language so as to create a new lexeme in the target language.

"Calque" itself is a loanword from a French noun, and derives from the verb "calquer" (to copy).[2] Loan translation is itself a calque of the German "Lehnübersetzung".[3]

Proving a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than an untranslated loanword, since in some cases a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the language proposed to be borrowing, or the calque contains less obvious imagery.

English

From Chinese

[10][11][12]

From French

From German or Dutch

From Dutch

From German

From Latin

From Spanish

From other languages

Latin

Romance Languages

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Examples of Romance language expressions calqued from foreign languages include:

French

Spanish

Many calques found in Southwestern US Spanish, come from English:

See also: Spanglish.

Also technological terms calqued from English are used throughout the Spanish-speaking world:

Germanic Languages

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Afrikaans and Dutch

German

Icelandic

Norwegian

Swedish

Slavic languages

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Macedonian

In more recent times, the Macedonian language has calqued new words from other prestige languages including German, French and English.

Some words were originally calqued into Russian and then absorbed into Macedonian, considering the close relatedness of the two languages. Therefore, many of these calques can also be considered Russianisms.

Russian

The poet Aleksandr Pushkin (1799–1837) was perhaps the most influential among the Russian literary figures who would transform the modern Russian language and vastly expand its ability to handle abstract and scientific concepts by importing the sophisticated vocabulary of Western intellectuals.

Although some Western vocabulary entered the language as loanwords — e.g., Italian salvietta, "napkin," was simply Russified in sound and spelling to салфетка (salfetka) — Pushkin and those he influenced most often preferred to render foreign borrowings into Russian by calquing. Compound words were broken down to their component roots, which were then translated piece-by-piece to their Slavic equivalents. But not all of the coinages caught on and became permanent additions to the lexicon; for example, любомудрие (ljubomudrie) was promoted by 19th-century Russian intellectuals as a calque of "philosophy," but the word eventually fell out of fashion, and modern Russian instead uses the loanword философия (filosofija).

Ukrainian

Greek

Finnish

Since Finnish, a Finno-Ugric language, differs radically in pronunciation and orthography from Indo-European languages, most loans adopted in Finnish either are calques or soon become such as foreign words are translated into Finnish. Examples include:

Hebrew

When Jews make an aliyah to Israel, they sometimes change their name to a Hebrew calque. For instance, Imi Lichtenfield, founder of the martial art Krav Maga, became Imi Sde-Or. Both last names mean "light field".

See also

References

  1. ^ a b flea market. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  2. ^ calque. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  3. ^ Robb: German English Words germanenglishwords.com
  4. ^ brainwashing. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  5. ^ [1]
  6. ^ long time no see: Information and Much More from Answers.com
  7. ^ [2]
  8. ^ lose face - Definitions from Dictionary.com
  9. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
  10. ^ Novotná, Z., "Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese", Archiv Orientalni, (Prague), No. 35 (1967), pp. 613–648. (In English; examples of loan words and calques in Chinese)
  11. ^ Novotná, Z., "Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese", Archiv Orientalni, (Prague), No. 36 (1968), pp. 295–325. (In English; examples of loan words and calques in Chinese)
  12. ^ Novotná, Z., "Contributions to the Study of Loan-Words and Hybrid Words in Modern Chinese", Archiv Orientalni, (Prague), No. 37 (1969), pp. 48–75. (In English; examples of loan words and calques in Chinese)
  13. ^ Adam's apple. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  14. ^ free verse. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
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  47. ^ Milky Way. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  48. ^ RIP. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  49. ^ in a nutshell - Definitions from Dictionary.com
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  51. ^ blue blood. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  52. ^ moment of truth. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
  53. ^ gospel. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000
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  55. ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary
  56. ^ http://medicalsciences.med.unsw.edu.au/somsweb.nsf/resources/histology02/$file/AnatomyGlossary2004_V2.pdf
  57. ^ Cruijff de film
  58. ^ Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  59. ^ Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  60. ^ Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  61. ^ Ordnett.no - Ordbok
  62. ^ Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  63. ^ Ordnett.no - Ordbok
  64. ^ Ordnett.no - Ordbok
  65. ^ Søk i elektroniske ordbøker
  66. ^ Søk i elektroniske ordbøker

External links