Although there has been a large degree of integration between European Union member states, foreign relations is still a largely inter-governmental matter, with the 27 members controlling their own relations to a large degree. However with the Union holding more weight as a single bloc, there are at times attempts to speak with one voice, notably on trade and energy matters.
Contents |
| European Union | |
|---|---|
 This article is part of the series: |
|
| Policy | |
|
CFSP High Representative |
|
| See also | |
|
Neighbourhood Policy · ACP · Economic Relations · Diplomatic Missions · Security · Military · Eurosphere · ESDP missions |
|
Relations with other European States are largely centred on the prospect of Enlargement, or integration short of it. See also: Third country relationships with the European Union.
Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein are part of the European Economic Area, inside the European Union's single market. Switzerland is outside the EEA but is connected by bilateral agreements and the European Free Trade Association. The other States are micro-states, Andorra, San Marino, Monaco and the Vatican City. All of the micro-states use the Euro as their currency. San Marino and Andorra each have a customs union with the EU, while Monaco has a customs union with France. Andorra is the only western european state to maintain border-controls with the EU. However, none of these countries has any political integration with the Union. Relations with: Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, Microstates.
The western Balkans and Turkey are all candidates, or potential candidates, for Union membership. Relations with these states are governed by association agreements and their membership negotiations. These countries often participate in larger Union projects such as the Energy Community or Single European Sky. See: Enlargement of the European Union
The Union has had a long standing commitment to the Western Balkans after the Community failed to develop a policy to intervene in the wars in the former Yugoslavia. That failure has spurred the development of the CFSP and expansion in the region to create stability there.
Although further eastern European countries are able to join, there is little chance in the near future due to the current agenda and the stalling of the European Constitution, therefore these States, along with Mediterranean countries, participate in the European Neighbourhood Policy (with the exception of Russia). Political leaders and politicians in Armenia, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine favour eventual EU membership while others such as Belarus have often been scorned by Brussels due to poor democratic and human rights standards. Relations with: Armenia, Azerbaijan Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine.
The countries around the Mediterranean have long been of interest in European foreign policy; a desire to create a "ring of friends" around the Union led to the creation of the European Neighbourhood Policy which covers the remainder of Eastern Europe and all other countries bordering the Mediterranean (including the Palestinian Authority and Jordan). There are attempts to develop the relationship with the Barcelona Process and a Euro-Mediterranean free trade area. Nicolas Sarkozy has proposed a "Mediterranean Union". Relations with: Israel, Morocco.
European leaders, like others, have been courting the PRC since its economic rise, however due to its authoritarian nature and the Union's concern for Human Rights, relations between Brussels and Beijing are often double edged. Since the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 the Union has imposed an arms embargo on the country, some leads are keen to replace this however with more general rules on arms sales.
There have been other disputes, such as the dispute over textile imports into the EU (Bra wars) with domestic European manufactures losing out to cheaper Chinese imported goods. The PRC and EU are increasingly seeking cooperation, for example China joined the Galileo project investing €230 million and has been buying Airbus planes in return for a construction plant to be built in China; in 2006 China placed an order for 150 planes during a visit by the French President[1].
There are plans to replace the current 1985 EC-China Trade and Co-operation Agreement with a more comprehensive Partnership and Cooperation Agreement. The Union is China's main largest trading partner, and China is the Union's second largest partner. [2][3]
However, EU-China relations have met an all time low with China after China cancelled the next summit. This was caused due to President Sarkozy's plans to meet with the Dalai Lama. [4]
India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the Union, signing bilateral agreements in 1973, when the United Kingdom joined. The most recent cooperation agreement was signed in 1994 and an action plan was signed in 2005. As of April 2007 the Commission is pursuing a free trade agreement with India. [5]
The Union is India's largest trading partner, accounting for 20% of Indian trade. However India accounts for only 1.8% of the EU's trade and attracts only 0.3% of European Foreign Direct Investment, although still provides India's largest source. During 2005 EU-India trade grew by 20.3%. [6]
There was controversy in 2006 when the Indian Mittal Steel Company sought to take-over the Luxembourg based steel company, Arcelor. The approach met with opposition from France and Luxembourg but was passed by the Commission who stated that they were judging it on competition grounds only. (See: Arcelor-Mittal).The European Union (EU) and India agreed on September 29,2008 at the EU-India summit in Marseille, France's largest commercial port, to expand their cooperation in the fields of nuclear energy and environmental protection and deepen their strategic partnership. French President Nicolas Sarkozy, the EU's rotating president, said at a joint press conference at the summit that EU welcomes India, as a large country, to engage in developing nuclear energy, adding that this clean energy will be helpful for the world to deal with the global climate change. Sarkozy said the EU and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan pledged to accelerate talks on a free trade deal and expected to finish the deal by 2009. The Indian prime minister was also cautiously optimistic about cooperation on nuclear energy. "Tomorrow we have a bilateral summit with France. This matter will come up and I hope some good results will emerge out of that meeting," Singh said when asked about the issue. Singh said that he was "very satisfied" with the results of the summit. He added that EU and India have "common values" and the two economies are complementary to each other. European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso, also speaking at Monday's press conference, expounded the joint action plan on adjustments of EU's strategic partnership with India, saying the two sides will strengthen cooperation on world peace and safety, sustainable development, cooperation in science and technology and cultural exchanges. Reviewing the two sides' efforts in developing the bilateral strategic partnership, the joint action plan reckoned that in politics, dialogue and cooperation have enhanced through regular summits and exchanges of visits and that in economy, mutual investments have increased dramatically in recent years, dialogue in macro economic policies and financial services has established and cooperation in energy, science and technology and environment has been launched. Under the joint action plan, EU and Indian would enhance consultation and dialogue on human rights within the UN framework, strengthen cooperation in world peacekeeping mission, fight against terror and non-proliferation of arms, promote cooperation and exchange in developing civil nuclear energy and strike a free trade deal as soon as possible. France, which relies heavily on nuclear power and is a major exporter of nuclear technology, is expected to sign a deal that would allow it to provide nuclear fuel to India. Trade between India and the 27-nation EU has more than doubled from 25.6 billion euros ($36.7 billion) in 2000 to 55.6 billion euros last year, with further expansion to be seen. "We have agreed to achieve an annual bilateral trade turnover of 100 billion euros within the next five years," Singh told reporters. A joint statement issued at the end of the summit said the EU and India would work to reach an agreement on climate change by the end of 2009. [7]
Russia is the Union's largest single neighbour and expressed a large degree of influence over eastern European and central Asian States. The Russian exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast has, since 2004, been surrounded on land by EU members. As a result the Oblast has been isolated from the rest of the federation due to stricter border controls.
Moscow chose not to participate in the European Neighbourhood Policy, and instead to cooperate with the Union through Common Spaces. Russia also cooperates in the Northern Dimension.
EU-Russia relations are highly influenced by the Union's dependence upon Russia as an energy supplier. Clashes with Russia over energy are common, with leaders expressing doubt in Russia's reliance after supplies were partially cut on two occasions by transit countries after a dispute with them (see Ukrainian and Belarusian gas disputes).
The Union has since sought to diversify supplies away from Russia.[8] In April 2007, Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson described trust between Russia and the Union as being at its lowest level since the end of the Cold War as a result of the energy disputes.[9]
Russia has objected to plans to base US Anti-ballistic missile defence systems in Poland and the Czech Republic seeing the move as hostility towards it. With some former Eastern bloc states joining NATO without signing the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, Russia has suggested it suspend implementation until it is signed and ratified by all NATO countries[10]. In addition, Moscow has suggested it may target its weapons towards European countries if US weapons are eventually based there.[11]
Following riots in Tallinn, the Estonian government moved a Soviet era war memorial (the Bronze Soldier of Tallinn) out of the city centre sparking indignation from Russia including "cyber-attacks" on Estonia. There followed a period of riots in Tallinn and around the Estonian embassy in Moscow[12].
Further problems include: a ban by Russia on Polish meat exports (due to allegations of low quality and unsafe meat exported from the country[13]), which caused Poland to veto proposed EU-Russia pacts issues such as energy and migration; an oil blockade on Lithuania; and concerns by Latvia and Poland on the Nord Stream pipeline[14].
There have been agreements on other matters such as withdrawal of taxes on EU flights overflying Siberia. Outside the EU, Russia is a member of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Council of Europe. As a member Russian citizens are able to appeal to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, where 363 judgements concerning Russia were brought to the court between 2002 and 2006, with 352 of those going against Russia. It does however largely comply with the court.[15]
The United States is often seen as Europe's strategic partner, being ideologically and culturally similar as well as tied together through the NATO alliance. However, recently a number of rifts have emerged, particularly visible since the Iraq War.
As the European Union is built on a basis of international cooperation and the pooling of sovereignty for mutual benefit, it naturally seeks a similar approach in the rest of the world. It supports the United Nations and International Criminal Court as well as agreements such as the Kyoto protocol and human rights agreements. In contrast the United States has been taking a more unilateralist approach with a greater willingness to use military hard power above the European style soft power techniques.[citation needed]
The Iraq War and the War on Terror are heavily criticised in Europe. However there still a relative amount of cooperation, in NATO and outside. For example, they have recently finalised an open skies agreement. In April 2007 President-in-Council Angela Merkel agreed with the US an economic pact on a common market.[16] Merkel hopes for it to be established by 2015.[17] See also: EU-US Issues of contention.
However there is difference between member-states in relations towards the United States, a number of governments supported the Iraq War for example. These states tend to be the more eurosceptic governments, namely the United Kingdom, Poland and the Czech Republic, the latter two have agreed to host elements of the United States' ballistic missile defence shield against public opinion on the matter, as was the case with the Iraq War. The Union as a whole is against the shield on the grounds that it would do little against real threats and would just antagonise countries such as Russia into another Cold War-style arms race.
Since the start of its cooperation with Pakistan in 1976, the Commission has committed more than €500 million to projects and programmes. During the 1980s the Commission launched a mix of infrastructure and social development projects which focused on development of roads, bridges, a fishing harbour facility, rural electricity infrastructure, livestock, education, vocational training and integrated rural development. In the 1990s the Commission streamlined and consolidated its portfolio and reoriented its activities towards policy-based social sector investment programmes, placing greater emphasis on human development and environmental management in line with shifts in government policy. In addition, the Commission provided support to smaller-scale operations with NGOs in areas such as population welfare, child labour, income generation, drug demand reduction and rural health. Under the previous CSP, the EC cooperation in Pakistan focused on human development, in particular basic education programmes at provincial level.
Since 2001, EU policy is to stay constructively and strongly engaged with Pakistan and to make a significant and visible engagement, both in political and economic terms. Measures include resumption and upgrading of political dialogue, signature of a 3rd Generation Co-operation Agreement, as well as additional development assistance.
In December 2006, the Council of the EU called on Afghanistan and Pakistan to deepen relations and to cooperate closely to deal with insecurity in border areas, while urging Pakistan to build on current efforts to prevent the use of its territory by the Taliban.
In order to enhance Pakistan’s capacity on WTO related issues, a trade-related technical assistance programme was launched in 2004 with a view to streamlining procedures and processes for trade facilitation in compliance with EU norms and standards.
For the period 2002-2006 €75 million were originally allocated for development and economic cooperation. Additional EC support to Pakistan was provided following the events of 2001 in recognition of Pakistan’s role as a partner in the fight against terrorism, including € 50 million for financial service reforms and to support development of micro-finance SMEs.
The 8 October 2005 earthquake had a devastating effect on Northern Areas of Pakistan, in particular Azad Jammu and Kashmir and North West Frontier Province. In response to this calamity the Commission proposed an assistance package of € 93.6 million, consisting of both humanitarian aid (€ 43.6 million) and reconstruction support (€ 50 million) for commitment in 2005.
Substantial assistance was also provided under other thematic budget lines, including for Afghan refugees in Pakistan.
Under its environment cooperation policy, over the last decade the EC contributed a total of € 32 million to rehabilitation, management and conservation of natural resources, safeguarding and conservation of biodiversity, education and capacity-building through sustainable resource management with the involvement of local communities. Major target areas included upland areas of Punjab and Afghania (NWFP), benefiting more than 2 million people.
The EU, in the form of the "EU three" (France, Germany and the United Kingdom) led by CFSP chief Javier Solana, have conducted negotiations with Iran regarding its nuclear programme. The United States and European nations are concerned that Iran is developing nuclear weapons banned in the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty.
The EU has led diplomatic talks to get guarantees there will be development of nuclear power only[18] while the United States, backing negotiations for now, has maintained a threat of military force[19]. These talks have not yet succeeded, with the issue going to the UN where sanctions were placed. In 2007 Solana sought to renew talks[20] and is due to meet Ali Larijani on 25 April 2007 to discuss resuming talks.[21] Meanwhile, EU leaders, in April 2007, have imposed sanctions on Iran that go beyond those laid out in UN Resolution 1737.[22]
Iran has also been been seeking to develop an oil bourse which would be the first to be denominated in euro. Although this has not featured in relations between the EU and Iran thus far, if it starts work it would have a considerable impact outside Iran.
There are annual meetings between the EU and the ASEAN Plus Three however relations have been strained with ASEAN since Myanmar (Burma) joined the group, which is facing EU pressure over human rights abuses by its military regime. The European Union threatened to boycott an EU-ASEAN meeting when Myanmar was due to take over the presidency of ASEAN, Myanmar eventually gave up the presidency.[23]
Democracy and human rights is a consistent dividing line between the two blocs, a delegation of MEPs were refused to allow to speak on democracy during a trip in 2007.[24] However there has been some co-operation: in 2003 the EU and ASEAN agreed to share intelligence on anti-terror matters.[25] As of April 2007 the Commission is pursuing a free trade agreement with ASEAN.[5]
The European Union's member-states retain close links with many of their former colonies and since the Treaty of Rome there has been a relationship between the Union and the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries in the form of ACP-EU Development Cooperation including a joint parliamentary assembly.
In April 2007 the Commission offered ACP countries greater access to the EU market; tariff-free rice exports with duty- and quota-free sugar exports.[26] However this offer is being fought by France who, along with other countries, wish to dilute the offer. [27]
The Union has been developing ties with other regional bodies such as the Andean Community and Mercosur, with plans for association agreements between the EU and the two other blocs underway to help trade, research, democracy and human rights. [29][30] Chile and Mexico have an Association Agreement with the EU.
A 2.6-billion euro financial package for Latin America was also put forward[29] with 840-million euro for Central America.[31] A major forum for European relations with Latin America is the Latin America, the Caribbean and the European Union Summit, a biannual meeting of heads of state and government held since 1999.
Opposition to the current regime in Cuba led to tense relations during the Cocktail Wars, 2003-2006.
As explicitly asserted by both Rome treaties, the Faroe Islands are not part of the European Union. Moreover, a protocol to the treaty of accession of Denmark to the European Communities stipulates that Danish nationals residing in the Faroe Islands are not to be considered as Danish nationals within the meaning of the treaties. Hence, Danish people living in the Faroes are not citizens of the European Union (other EU nationals living there remain EU citizens). The Faroes are not covered by the Schengen free movement agreement, but there are no border checks when traveling between the Faroes and any Schengen country since the Faroes are part of the Nordic Passport Union since 1966 and since 2001 there are no border checks between the Nordic and the rest of the Schengen area as part of the Schengen agreement. It is likely that if the Faroe Islands gain independence they will not join the European Union and opt out as Greenland has done.[citation needed]
Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002, the accord becoming known as the EU-Lebanon Association Agreement. The EU-Lebanon Action Plan from 19 January 2007 gave a new impetus to bilateral relations in the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy.
Lebanon is one of the main Mediterranean beneficiaries of community assistance and the EU through its various instruments is Lebanon’s leading donor. Starting from 2007 financial support is channeled through the European Neighborhood Policy Instrument. A Lebanon Country Strategy Paper 2007-2013 and a National Indicative Program 2007-2010 have been adopted by the EU. The assistance provided was refocused after the Second Lebanon War in order to engage in real help for the government and the society in reconstruction and reform of the country.[32]
The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Kazakhstan has been the legal framework for EU-Kazakhstan bilateral relations since it entered into force in 1999. In November 2006 a Memorandum of Understanding on cooperation in the field of energy between the EU and Kazakhstan has been signed establishing the basis for enhanced cooperation.
The future European Commission assistance will focus on the following priority areas: promotion of the ongoing reform process at political, economic, judiciary and social level, infrastructure building, and cooperation in the energy sector.
The overall EU co-operation objectives, policy responses and priority fields for Central Asia can be found in the EC Regional Strategy Paper for Central Asia 2007-2013. In addition to the assistance under the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI) , Kazakhstan participates in several ongoing regional programs.[33]
The Union is also keen to improve relations with other oil producing countries in order to diversify away from Russia, towards this end it is attempting to court central Asian nations.[8][34] However there is concern about building relations with countries that have poor human rights records.[35]
The Union as a whole is increasingly representing its members in international organisations. Aside from EU-centric organisations (mentioned above) the EU, or the Community, is represented in a number of organisations: the United Nations, as an observer; the Organization of American States as an observer, the G8, full rights except being able to chair and host a summit (see European Union and the G8)[36]; the World Trade Organisation; the ASEAN Regional Forum, dialogue member; the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, dialogue member; the International Development Association; Pacific Islands Forum, as a partner; the Council of the Baltic Sea States; the Australia Group; the European Organization for Nuclear Research; the Food and Agriculture Organization, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the G10, observer; the Non-Aligned Movement, as an observer; Nuclear Suppliers Group, as an observer; the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East; and the Zangger Committee, as an observer.[37] The EU is also one of part of the Quartet on the Middle East, represented by the High Representative.[38] At the UN, some officials see the EU moving towards a single seat on the UN Security Council.[39]
The European Union is expected to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights (the Convention). In 2005, the leaders of the Council of Europe reiterated their desire for the EU to accede without delay to ensure consistent human rights protection across Europe. There are also concerns about consistency in case law - the European Court of Justice (the EU's supreme court) is already treating the Convention as though it was part of the EU's legal system to prevent conflict between its judgements and those of the European Court of Human Rights (the court interpreting the Convention). Protocol No.14 of the Convention is designed to allow the EU to accede to it and the Treaty of Lisbon contains a protocol binding the EU to joining. The EU would not be subordinate to the Council, but would be subject to its human rights law and external monitoring as its member states are currently. It is further proposed that the EU join as a member of the Council once it has attained its legal personality in the Treaty of Lisbon.[40][41]
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
.svg){kind=small}
